Lipid aggregates such as liposomes have been found to be useful as agents for delivery to introduce macromolecules, such as DNA, RNA, protein, and small chemical compounds such as pharmaceuticals, to cells. In particular, lipid aggregates comprising cationic lipid components have been shown to be especially effective for delivering anionic molecules to cells. In part, the effectiveness of cationic lipids is thought to result from enhanced affinity for cells, many of which bear a net negative charge. Also in part, the net positive charge on lipid aggregates comprising a cationic lipid enables the aggregate to bind polyanions, such as nucleic acids. Lipid aggregates containing DNA are known to be effective agents for efficient transfection of target cells.
The structure of various types of lipid aggregates varies, depending on composition and method of forming the aggregate. Such aggregates include liposomes, unilamellar vesicles, multilamellar vesicles, micelles and the like, having particle sizes in the nanometer to micrometer range. Methods of making lipid aggregates are by now well-known in the art. The main drawback to use of conventional phospholipid-containing liposomes for delivery is that the material to be delivered must be encapsulated and the liposome composition has a net negative charge which is not attracted to the negatively charged cell surface. By combining cationic lipid compounds with a phospholipid, positively charged vesicles and other types of lipid aggregates can bind DNA, which is negatively charged, can be taken up by target cells, and can transfect target cells. (Felgner, P. L. et al. (1987) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 84:7413-7417; Eppstein, D. et al., U.S. Pat. No. 4,897,355.) A well-known cationic lipid disclosed in the prior art is N-[1-(2,3-dioleoyl-oxy)propyl]-N,N,N-trimethylammonium chloride (DOTMA). The structure of DOTMA is:
DOTMA by itself or in 1:1 combination with dioleoylphosphatidylethanolamine (DOPE) is formulated into liposomes using standard techniques. Felgner, et al. supra demonstrated that such liposomes provided efficient delivery of nucleic acids to some types of cells. A DOTMA:DOPE (1:1) formulation is sold under the trade name LIPOFECTIN (Gibco/BRL: Life Technologies, Inc., Gaithersburg, Md.). Another commercially available cationic lipid is 1,2-bis(oleoyloxy)-3-3-(trimethylammonia) propane (DOTAP), which differs from DOTMA only in that the oleoyl moieties are linked via ester, rather than ether bonds to the propylamine. DOTAP is believed to be more readily degraded by target cells. A related group of prior art compounds differ from DOTMA and DOTAP in that one of the methyl groups of the trimethylammonium group is replaced by a hydroxyethyl group. Compounds of this type are similar to the Rosenthal Inhibitor (RI) of phospholipase A (Rosenthal, A. F. and Geyer, R. P. (1960) J. Biol. Chem. 235:2202-2206) which has stearoyl esters linked to the propylamine core. The dioleoyl analogs of RI are commonly abbreviated as DORI-ether and DORI-ester, depending on the linkage of the fatty acid moieties to the propylamine core. The hydroxy group can be used as a site for further functionalization, for example by esterification to carboxyspermine.
Another class of prior art compounds has been disclosed by Behr et al. (1989) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 86:6982-6986; EPO publication 0 394 111 (Oct. 24, 1990), in which carboxyspermine has been conjugated to two types of lipids. The structure of 5-carboxyspermylglycine dioctadecylamide (DOGS) is:
where R═CH3(CH2)17 
The structure of dipalmitoylphosphatidylethanolamine 5-carboxyspermylamide (DPPES) is:
where R═CH3(CH2)15 
Both DOGS and DPPES have been used to coat plasmids, forming a lipid aggregate complex that provides efficient transfection. The compounds are claimed to be more efficient and less toxic than DOTMA for transfection of some cell lines. DOGS is available commercially as TRANSFECTAM™ (Promega, Madison, Wis.).
A cationic cholesterol derivative (DC-Chol) has been synthesized and formulated into liposomes in combination with DOPE. (Gao, X. and Huang, L. (1991) Biochim. Biophys. Res. Comm. 179:280-285) The compound's structure is

Liposomes formulated with DC-Chol are said to provide more efficient transfection and lower toxicity than DOTMA-containing liposomes for some cell lines.
Lipopolylysine, formed by conjugating polylysine to DOPE, has been reported to be especially effective for transfection in the presence of serum, a condition likely to be encountered in vivo (Zhou, X. et al. (1991) Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1065:8-14).
Despite advances in the field, a need remains for a variety of improved cationic lipid compounds. In particular, no single cationic lipid to date has been found to work well with all cell types. Since different cell types differ from one another in membrane composition, it is not surprising that different compositions and types of lipid aggregates are effective for different cell types, either for their ability to contact and fuse with target cell membranes, or for aspects of the transfer process itself. At present these processes are not well understood, consequently the design of effective liposomal precursors is largely empirical. Besides content and transfer, other factors are of importance, for example, ability to form lipid aggregates suited to the intended purpose, toxicity to the target cell, stability as a carrier for the compound to be delivered, and ability to function in an in vivo environment. In addition, lipid aggregates can be improved by broadening the range of substances which can be delivered to cells. The highly packed and spatially correct positioning of positive charges matching negative charges on DNA polycationic ammonium, sulfonium and phosphonium lipid compounds of the present invention have improved function with respect to several of the foregoing attributes.